Abyssal Zone Site

Still standingThe Abyssopelagic Zone, also known as the Abyssal Zone, is a very dark place in the / animated film. As its name suggests, the Abyssopelagic Zone is a very deep part of the ocean where 's mask sinks into and in which Marlin and Dory encounter a while trying to find the mask.AppearancesWhile Marlin and Dory attempt to retrieve Philip Sherman's mask which fell into the abyssal zone, they suddenly swim through a small luminescence of light after being attracted to it. As soon as Dory touches the light and Marlin and Dory follow the light, behind them is a territorial anglerfish which shows its bioluminescence and roars at the two fish when it entices the two with its glowing dorsal fin before chasing them as the two fish try to search for Phillip Sherman's diving mask which sank into the bottom of the ocean. After Dory says that she cannot see a thing, the anglerfish suddenly sees the spot where Dory and Marlin are at behind the mask that Philip Sherman lost in which Marlin tells Dory to read what it says on the mask while the anglerfish is chasing him. After Dory reads the words on Philip Sherman's mask, the anglerfish eventually gets caught in the mask around a rock, immobilizing it, but not before attempting one last bite at Marlin and Dory.

The two fish manage to leave from the dark abyssal zone after defeating the anglerfish as they head off to continue their journey to find Nemo.The location is seen again in the post-credits scene where Blenny, the small green fish, notices the anglerfish behind him in which Blenny suddenly eats it in one bite.

At 16,404 feet (5,000 meters) deep, you have reached the frontier of human knowledge: the abyssal zone, a Greek word that means “no bottom.” What happens down there? Life is sparse, but scientists suspect the deep ocean could be playing a major role in the Earth’s climate system.

.An abyssal plain is an underwater on the deep, usually found at depths between 3,000 metres (9,800 ft) and 6,000 metres (20,000 ft). Lying generally between the foot of a and a, abyssal plains cover more than 50% of the 's surface. They are among the flattest, smoothest, and least explored regions on Earth.

Abyssal plains are key geologic elements of (the other elements being an elevated mid-ocean ridge and flanking ).The creation of the abyssal plain is the result of the spreading of the seafloor (plate tectonics) and the melting of the lower. Magma rises from above the (a layer of the upper ), and as this material reaches the surface at mid-ocean ridges, it forms new oceanic crust, which is constantly pulled sideways by spreading of the seafloor. Abyssal plains result from the blanketing of an originally uneven surface of oceanic crust by fine-grained, mainly. Much of this sediment is deposited by that have been channelled from the along into deeper water. The rest is composed chiefly of.

Metallic are common in some areas of the plains, with varying concentrations of metals, including, and.Owing in part to their vast size, abyssal plains are believed to be major reservoirs of. They also exert significant influence upon ocean, dissolution of, and over of a hundred to a thousand years. The structure of abyssal are strongly influenced by the rate of to the seafloor and the composition of the material that settles.

Factors such as, and have a substantial effect on patterns of in the.Abyssal plains were not recognized as distinct features of the until the late 1940s and, until very recently, none had been studied on a systematic basis. They are poorly preserved in the, because they tend to be consumed by the subduction process. Pelagic zonesThe ocean can be conceptualized as being divided into various, depending on depth, and presence or absence of. Nearly all in the ocean depend on the activities of and other marine to convert into, which is the basic building block of.

Photosynthesis in turn requires energy from sunlight to drive the chemical reactions that produce organic carbon.The stratum of the nearest the surface of the ocean is referred to as the. The photic zone can be subdivided into two different vertical regions.

The uppermost portion of the photic zone, where there is adequate light to support photosynthesis by phytoplankton and plants, is referred to as the (also referred to as the, or surface zone). The lower portion of the photic zone, where the light intensity is insufficient for photosynthesis, is called the (dysphotic means 'poorly lit' in Greek). The dysphotic zone is also referred to as the mesopelagic zone, or the twilight zone.

Its lowermost boundary is at a of 12 °C (54 °F), which, in the generally lies between 200 and 1000 metres.The euphotic zone is somewhat arbitrarily defined as extending from the surface to the depth where the light intensity is approximately 0.1–1% of surface sunlight, depending on, and degree of water. In the clearest ocean water, the euphotic zone may extend to a depth of about 150 metres, or rarely, up to 200 metres. And absorb and scatter light, and in coastal regions the high concentration of these substances causes light to be attenuated rapidly with depth.

In such areas the euphotic zone may be only a few tens of metres deep or less. The dysphotic zone, where light intensity is considerably less than 1% of surface irradiance, extends from the base of the euphotic zone to about 1000 metres. Extending from the bottom of the photic zone down to the is the, a region of perpetual darkness.Since the average depth of the ocean is about 4300 metres, the photic zone represents only a tiny fraction of the ocean's total volume. However, due to its capacity for photosynthesis, the photic zone has the greatest biodiversity and of all oceanic zones.

Nearly all primary production in the ocean occurs here. Life forms which inhabit the aphotic zone are often capable of into the photic zone for feeding. Otherwise, they must rely on, or find another source of energy and nutrition, such as occurs in found near and.The aphotic zone can be subdivided into three different vertical regions, based on depth and temperature.

First is the, extending from a depth of 1000 metres down to 3000 metres, with water temperature decreasing from 12 °C (54 °F) to 4 °C (39 °F) as depth increases. Next is the, extending from a depth of 3000 metres down to 6000 metres. The final zone includes the deep oceanic trenches, and is known as the. This, the deepest oceanic zone, extends from a depth of 6000 metres down to approximately 11000 metres. Abyssal plains are typically in the abyssal zone, at depths from 3000 to 6000 metres.The table below illustrates the classification of oceanic zones:ZoneSubzone (common name)Depth of zoneWater temperatureComments(epipelagic zone)0–200 metreshighly variable(mesopelagic zone, or twilight zone)200–1000 metres4 °C or 39 °F – highly variable1000–3000 metres4–12 °C or 39–54 °F3000–6000 metres0–4 °C or 32–39 °Fwater temperature may reach as high as 464 °C (867 °F) nearbelow 6000 metres1–2.5 °C or 34–36 °Fambient water temperature increases below 4000 metres due toFormation. Age of oceanic crust (red is youngest, and blue is oldest)Oceanic crust, which forms the of abyssal plains, is continuously being created at mid-ocean ridges (a type of ) by a process known as.related decompression melting of solid mantle is responsible for creating ocean islands like the, as well as the ocean crust at mid-ocean ridges.

This phenomenon is also the most common explanation for and (two types of ). Decompression melting occurs when the upper is into as it moves upwards under mid-ocean ridges. This upwelling magma then cools and solidifies by and of heat to form new. Occurs as mantle is added to the growing edges of a, usually associated with.

The age of oceanic crust is therefore a function of distance from the mid-ocean ridge. The youngest oceanic crust is at the mid-ocean ridges, and it becomes progressively older, cooler and denser as it migrates outwards from the mid-ocean ridges as part of the process called.The, which rides atop the, is divided into a number of tectonic plates that are continuously being created and consumed at their opposite. Oceanic crust and tectonic plates are formed and move apart at mid-ocean ridges. Abyssal hills are formed by stretching of the oceanic lithosphere. Consumption or destruction of the oceanic lithosphere occurs at (a type of, also known as a destructive plate boundary) by a process known as. Oceanic trenches are found at places where the oceanic lithospheric slabs of two different plates meet, and the denser (older) slab begins to descend back into the mantle.

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At the consumption edge of the plate (the oceanic trench), the oceanic lithosphere has thermally contracted to become quite dense, and it sinks under its own weight in the process of subduction. The subduction process consumes older oceanic lithosphere, so oceanic crust is seldom more than 200 million years old. The overall process of repeated cycles of creation and destruction of oceanic crust is known as the, first proposed by and.New oceanic crust, closest to the mid-oceanic ridges, is mostly basalt at shallow levels and has a rugged. The roughness of this topography is a function of the rate at which the mid-ocean ridge is spreading (the spreading rate). Magnitudes of spreading rates vary quite significantly.

Typical values for fast-spreading ridges are greater than 100 mm/yr, while slow-spreading ridges are typically less than 20 mm/yr. Studies have shown that the slower the spreading rate, the rougher the new oceanic crust will be, and vice versa. It is thought this phenomenon is due to at the mid-ocean ridge when the new oceanic crust was formed. These faults pervading the oceanic crust, along with their bounding abyssal hills, are the most common tectonic and topographic features on the surface of the Earth. The process of seafloor spreading helps to explain the concept of in the theory of plate tectonics.The flat appearance of mature abyssal plains results from the blanketing of this originally uneven surface of oceanic crust by fine-grained sediments, mainly clay and silt. Much of this sediment is deposited from turbidity currents that have been channeled from the continental margins along submarine canyons down into deeper water.

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The remainder of the sediment comprises chiefly dust (clay particles) blown out to sea from land, and the remains of small and which sink from the upper layer of the ocean, known as. The total sediment deposition rate in remote areas is estimated at two to three centimeters per thousand years. Sediment-covered abyssal plains are less common in the Pacific Ocean than in other major ocean basins because sediments from turbidity currents are trapped in oceanic trenches that border the Pacific Ocean.Abyssal plains are typically covered by very deep sea, but during parts of the much of the 's abyssal plain was exposed to air as an empty deep hot dry salt-floored sink. Discovery. Location of the in theThe landmark scientific (December 1872 – May 1876) of the British survey ship yielded a tremendous amount of data, much of which has been confirmed by subsequent researchers. Bathymetric data obtained during the course of the Challenger expedition enabled scientists to draw maps, which provided a rough outline of certain major submarine terrain features, such as the edge of the and the. This discontinuous set of data points was obtained by the simple technique of taking by lowering long lines from the ship to the seabed.The Challenger expedition was followed by the 1879–1881 expedition of the, led by Lieutenant.

The team sailed across the and recorded and data in addition to taking soundings of the seabed. The ship became trapped in the near in September 1879, and was ultimately crushed and sunk in June 1881.The Jeannette expedition was followed by the 1893–1896 Arctic of explorer aboard the, which proved that the was a deep oceanic basin, uninterrupted by any significant land masses north of the continent.Beginning in 1916, Canadian physicist and other scientists of the Anti-Submarine Detection Investigation Committee undertook research which ultimately led to the development of technology. Equipment was developed which could be operated much more rapidly than the sounding lines, thus enabling the aboard the German research vessel (1925–27) to take frequent soundings on east-west Atlantic transects. Maps produced from these techniques show the major Atlantic basins, but the depth precision of these early instruments was not sufficient to reveal the flat featureless abyssal plains.As technology improved, measurement of depth, and became more precise and it became possible to collect more or less continuous sets of data points. This allowed researchers to draw accurate and detailed maps of large areas of the ocean floor. Use of a continuously recording enabled Tolstoy & Ewing in the summer of 1947 to identify and describe the first abyssal plain.

This plain, south of, is now known as the. Following this discovery many other examples were found in all the oceans.The is the deepest surveyed point of all of Earth's oceans; it is at the south end of the near the group. The depression is named after HMS Challenger, whose researchers made the first recordings of its depth on 23 March 1875 at. The reported depth was 4,475 (8184 meters) based on two separate soundings. On 1 June 2009, sonar mapping of the Challenger Deep by the EM120 system aboard the indicated a maximum depth of 10971 meters (6.82 miles). The sonar system uses and bottom detection, with an accuracy of better than 0.2% of water depth (this is an error of about 22 meters at this depth).

Terrain features Hydrothermal vents. Main article:A rare but important terrain feature found in the abyssal and hadal zones is the hydrothermal vent. In contrast to the approximately 2 °C ambient water temperature at these depths, water emerges from these vents at temperatures ranging from 60 °C up to as high as 464 °C. Due to the high at these depths, water may exist in either its liquid form or as a at such temperatures.At a barometric pressure of 218, the of water is 375 °C.

At a depth of 3,000 meters, the barometric pressure of sea water is more than 300 atmospheres (as salt water is than fresh water). At this depth and pressure, seawater becomes supercritical at a temperature of 407 °C ( see image). However the increase in salinity at this depth pushes the water closer to its critical point. Thus, water emerging from the hottest parts of some hydrothermal vents, and can be a, possessing physical properties between those of a and those of a.Sister Peak (Comfortless Cove Hydrothermal Field, elevation −2996 m), Shrimp Farm and Mephisto (Red Lion Hydrothermal Field, elevation −3047 m), are three hydrothermal vents of the black smoker category, on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge near. They are presumed to have been active since an earthquake shook the region in 2002. These vents have been observed to vent, vapor-type fluids. In 2008, sustained exit temperatures of up to 407 °C were recorded at one of these vents, with a peak recorded temperature of up to 464 °C.

These conditions exceed the critical point of seawater, and are the highest temperatures recorded to date from the seafloor. This is the first reported evidence for direct - interaction on a slow-spreading mid-ocean ridge. Cold seeps. Main article:Another unusual feature found in the abyssal and hadal zones is the, sometimes called a cold vent. This is an area of the seabed where seepage of, and other -rich fluid occurs, often in the form of a deep-sea.

The first cold seeps were discovered in 1983, at a depth of 3200 meters in the. Since then, cold seeps have been discovered in many other areas of the, including the just off, California, the, off the Pacific coast of, off the Atlantic coast of Africa, off the coast of Alaska, and under an in. Biodiversity. See also:, andThough the plains were once assumed to be vast, -like habitats, research over the past decade or so shows that they teem with a wide variety of life. However, ecosystem structure and function at the deep seafloor have historically been very poorly studied because of the size and remoteness of the abyss.

Recent expeditions conducted by an international group of scientists from the (CeDAMar) have found an extremely high level of biodiversity on abyssal plains, with up to 2000 species of bacteria, 250 species of, and 500 species of (, and ), typically found at single abyssal sites. New species make up more than 80% of the thousands of seafloor invertebrate species collected at any abyssal station, highlighting our heretofore poor understanding of abyssal diversity and evolution.

Richer biodiversity is associated with areas of known input and higher organic carbon flux., a of cusk eel in the, is among the deepest-living species of fish. In 1970, one specimen was from a depth of 8370 meters in the. The animal was dead, however, upon arrival at the surface.

In 2008, the ( Pseudoliparis amblystomopsis) was observed and recorded at a depth of 7700 meters in the. These are, to date, the deepest living fish ever recorded. Other fish of the abyssal zone include the fishes of the family, which includes the abyssal spiderfish ( ), tripodfish ( ), feeler fish ( ), and the black lizardfish ( ). Some members of this family have been recorded from depths of more than 6000 meters.CeDAMar scientists have demonstrated that some abyssal and hadal species have a cosmopolitan distribution. One example of this would be protozoan, certain species of which are distributed from the Arctic to the Antarctic. Other faunal groups, such as the worms and crustaceans, appear to be endemic to certain specific plains and basins. Many apparently unique of worms have also been recently discovered on abyssal plains.

This suggests that the very deep ocean has fostered. The taxonomic composition of the nematode fauna in the abyssal Pacific is similar, but not identical to, that of the North Atlantic. A list of some of the species that have been discovered or redescribed by CeDAMar can be found.Eleven of the 31 described species of (a of ) live below 2000 meters. Of these 11 species, two live exclusively in the hadal zone. The greatest number of monoplacophorans are from the eastern Pacific Ocean along the oceanic trenches.

However, no abyssal monoplacophorans have yet been found in the Western Pacific and only one abyssal species has been identified in the Indian Ocean. Of the 922 known species of (from the class of mollusks), 22 species (2.4%) are reported to live below 2000 meters and two of them are restricted to the abyssal plain. Although genetic studies are lacking, at least six of these species are thought to be eurybathic (capable of living in a wide range of depths), having been reported as occurring from the to abyssal depths. A large number of the polyplacophorans from great depths are or, which could explain the difference between the distribution of monoplacophorans and polyplacophorans in the world's oceans.crustaceans, including isopods, are known to form a significant part of the macrobenthic community that is responsible for scavenging on large food falls onto the sea floor. In 2000, scientists of the Diversity of the deep Atlantic benthos (DIVA 1) expedition (cruise M48/1 of the German research vessel RV Meteor III) discovered and collected three new species of the of isopods from the abyssal plains of the in the South. In 2003, De Broyer et al. Collected some 68,000 peracarid crustaceans from 62 species from baited traps deployed in the, and off the.

They found that about 98% of the specimens belonged to the, and 2% to the isopod family. Half of these species were collected from depths of greater than 1000 meters.In 2005, the (JAMSTEC) remotely operated vehicle, collected sediment core from the Challenger Deep. 432 living specimens of soft-walled foraminifera were identified in the sediment samples. Foraminifera are single-celled that construct shells. There are an estimated 4,000 species of living foraminifera. Out of the 432 organisms collected, the overwhelming majority of the sample consisted of simple, soft-shelled foraminifera, with others representing species of the complex, multi-chambered genera Leptohalysis and Reophax.

Overall, 85% of the specimens consisted of soft-shelled. This is unusual compared to samples of sediment-dwelling organisms from other deep-sea environments, where the percentage of organic-walled foraminifera ranges from 5% to 20% of the total. Small organisms with hard calciferous shells have trouble growing at extreme depths because the water at that depth is severely lacking in calcium carbonate.While similar lifeforms have been known to exist in shallower oceanic trenches (7,000 m) and on the abyssal plain, the lifeforms discovered in the Challenger Deep may represent independent taxa from those shallower ecosystems.

This preponderance of soft-shelled organisms at the Challenger Deep may be a result of selection pressure. Millions of years ago, the Challenger Deep was shallower than it is now.

Over the past six to nine million years, as the Challenger Deep grew to its present depth, many of the species present in the sediment of that ancient biosphere were unable to adapt to the increasing water pressure and changing environment. Those species that were able to adapt may have been the ancestors of the organisms currently endemic to the Challenger Deep.Polychaetes occur throughout the Earth's oceans at all depths, from forms that live as near the surface, to the deepest oceanic trenches. The robot ocean probe observed a 2–3 cm specimen (still unclassified) of polychaete at the bottom of the Challenger Deep on 31 May 2009. There are more than 10,000 described species of polychaetes; they can be found in nearly every marine environment.

Some species live in the coldest ocean temperatures of the hadal zone, while others can be found in the extremely hot waters adjacent to hydrothermal vents.Within the abyssal and hadal zones, the areas around submarine hydrothermal vents and cold seeps have by far the greatest biomass and biodiversity per unit area. Fueled by the chemicals dissolved in the vent fluids, these areas are often home to large and diverse communities of, and other (such as those of the sulfide-oxidizing genus ), often arranged in large near cold seeps. In these locations, chemosynthetic archaea and bacteria typically form the base of the food chain. Although the process of chemosynthesis is entirely microbial, these chemosynthetic microorganisms often support vast ecosystems consisting of complex multicellular organisms through. These communities are characterized by species such as, isopods,. The deepest seep community discovered thus far is in the, at a depth of 7700 meters.Probably the most important ecological characteristic of abyssal ecosystems is energy limitation.

Abyssal seafloor communities are considered to be food limited because production depends on the input of produced in the euphotic zone, thousands of meters above. Most of the organic flux arrives as an of small particles (typically, only 0.5–2% of net primary production in the euphotic zone), which decreases inversely with water depth. The small particle flux can be augmented by the and downslope transport of organic material near continental margins. Exploitation of resources. See also: andIn addition to their high biodiversity, abyssal plains are of great current and future commercial and strategic interest. For example, they may be used for the legal and illegal disposal of large structures such as ships and, and other, such as.

They may also be attractive sites for, and and other. Future deep-sea activities that could be significant by 2025 include, and disposal of.As dwindle in the upper ocean, deep-sea are increasingly being targeted for exploitation. Because are long-lived and slow growing, these deep-sea fisheries are not thought to be sustainable in the long term given current management practices. Changes in primary production in the photic zone are expected to alter the standing stocks in the food-limited aphotic zone.Hydrocarbon exploration in deep water occasionally results in significant resulting mainly from accumulation of contaminated, but also from. While the involved in the in the originates from a only 1500 meters below the ocean surface, it nevertheless illustrates the kind of that can result from mishaps related to for oil and gas.Sediments of certain abyssal plains contain abundant mineral resources, notably.

These potato-sized of manganese, iron, nickel, cobalt, and copper, distributed on the seafloor at depths of greater than 4000 meters, are of significant commercial interest. The area of maximum commercial interest for polymetallic nodule mining (called the ) lies in of the Pacific Ocean, stretching from 118°–157°, and from 9°–16°N, an area of more than 3 million km². The abyssal (CCFZ) is an area within the Pacific nodule province that is currently under exploration for its mineral potential.Eight commercial contractors are currently licensed by the (an established to organize and control all mineral-related activities in the international seabed area beyond the limits of ) to explore nodule resources and to test mining techniques in eight, each covering 150,000 km². When mining ultimately begins, each mining operation is projected to directly disrupt 300–800 km² of seafloor per year and disturb the over an area 5–10 times that size due to redeposition of suspended sediments.

Thus, over the 15-year projected duration of a single mining operation, nodule mining might severely damage abyssal seafloor communities over areas of 20,000 to 45,000 km² (a zone at least the size of ).Limited knowledge of the, and of prevents accurate assessment of the risk of species from large-scale mining. Data acquired from the abyssal North Pacific and North Atlantic suggest that deep-sea ecosystems may be adversely affected by mining operations on decadal time scales. In 1978, a dredge aboard the, operated by the American mining (OMCO), made a mining track at a depth of 5000 meters in the nodule fields of the CCFZ. In 2004, the Research Institute for Exploitation of the Sea conducted the Nodinaut expedition to this mining track (which is still visible on the seabed) to study the long-term effects of this physical disturbance on the sediment and its benthic fauna.

Samples taken of the superficial sediment revealed that its physical and chemical properties had not shown any recovery since the disturbance made 26 years earlier. On the other hand, the biological activity measured in the track by instruments aboard the manned did not differ from a nearby unperturbed site. This data suggests that the benthic fauna and nutrient fluxes at the water–sediment interface has fully recovered. List of abyssal plains.