War Of Nations Wiki

Alexander I now urged all of his subordinate commanders including those of Prussia, Austria and other nations to push the gigantic Coalition army on the offensive after the battle, and, having decisively won the battle, was more than ever determined to carry the war onto French soil.

The, one of the earliest formulations ofThe concept of a peaceful community of nations had been proposed as far back as 1795, when 's outlined the idea of a league of nations to control conflict and promote peace between states. Kant argued for the establishment of a peaceful world community, not in a sense of a global government, but in the hope that each state would declare itself a free state that respects its citizens and welcomes foreign visitors as fellow rational beings, thus promoting peaceful society worldwide. International co-operation to promote collective security originated in the that developed after the in the 19th century in an attempt to maintain the status quo between European states and so avoid war. This period also saw the development of international law, with the first establishing laws dealing with humanitarian relief during wartime, and the international governing rules of war and the peaceful settlement of international disputes. As historians William H. Harbaugh and point out, was the first to call for an international league.

At the acceptance for his Nobel Prize, Roosevelt said: 'it would be a masterstroke if those great powers honestly bent on peace would form a League of Peace.' The forerunner of the League of Nations, the (IPU), was formed by the peace activists and in 1889 (and is currently still in existence as an international body with a focus on the various elected legislative bodies of the world.) The IPU was founded with an international scope, with a third of the members of (in the 24 countries that had parliaments) serving as members of the IPU by 1914.

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Its foundational aims were to encourage governments to solve international disputes by peaceful means. Annual conferences were established to help governments refine the process of international arbitration. Its structure was designed as a council headed by a president, which would later be reflected in the structure of the League.

Initial proposals. One of the earliest advocates for a League of Nations.At the start of the First World War, the first schemes for an international organisation to prevent future wars began to gain considerable public support, particularly in Great Britain and the United States., a British political scientist, coined the term 'League of Nations' in 1914 and drafted a scheme for its organisation. Together with, he played a leading role in the founding of the group of internationalist pacifists known as the, later the. The group became steadily more influential among the public and as a pressure group within the then governing. In Dickinson's 1915 pamphlet After the War he wrote of his 'League of Peace' as being essentially an organisation for arbitration and conciliation. He felt that the secret diplomacy of the early twentieth century had brought about war and thus could write that, 'the impossibility of war, I believe, would be increased in proportion as the issues of foreign policy should be known to and controlled by public opinion.'

The ‘Proposals’ of the Bryce Group were circulated widely, both in England and the US, where they had a profound influence on the nascent international movement.Within two weeks of the start of the war, feminists began to mobilise against the war. Having been barred from participating in prior peace organizations, American women formed a Women's Peace Parade Committee to plan a silent protest to the war.

Led by chairwoman, women from trade unions, feminist organizations, and social reform organizations, such as, and others, organized 1500 women, who marched down 's on 29 August 1914. As a result of the parade, became interested in proposals by two European suffragists—Hungarian and British —to hold a peace conference. On 9–10 January 1915, a peace conference directed by Addams was held in, where the delegates adopted a platform calling for creation of international bodies with administrative and legislative powers to develop a 'permanent league of neutral nations' to work for peace and disarmament.Within months a call was made for an international women's conference to be held in. Coordinated by, and, the Congress, which opened on 28 April 1915 was attended by 1,136 participants from both neutral and non-, and resulted in the establishment of an organization which would become the (WILPF). At the close of the conference, two delegations of women were dispatched to meet European heads of state over the next several months. They secured agreement from reluctant Foreign Ministers, who overall felt that such a body would be ineffective, but agreed to participate or not impede creation of a neutral mediating body, if other nations agreed and if President would initiate a body. In the midst of the War, Wilson refused.In 1915, a similar body to the Bryce group proposals was set up in the United States by a group of like-minded individuals, including.

It was called the and was substantially based on the proposals of the Bryce Group. It advocated the use of arbitration in conflict resolution and the imposition of sanctions on aggressive countries. None of these early organisations envisioned a continuously functioning body; with the exception of the in England, they maintained a legalistic approach that would limit the international body to a court of justice. The Fabians were the first to argue for a 'Council' of states, necessarily the, who would adjudicate world affairs, and for the creation of a permanent secretariat to enhance international co-operation across a range of activities.In the course of the, both sides had to clarify their long-term war aims. By 1916 in Britain, the leader of the, and in the neutral United States, long-range thinkers had begun to design a unified international organisation to prevent future wars. Historian Peter Yearwood argues that when the new coalition government of took power in December 1916, there was widespread discussion among intellectuals and diplomats of the desirability of establishing such an organisation.

When Lloyd George was challenged by Wilson to state his position with an eye on the postwar situation, he endorsed such an organisation. Wilson himself included in his in January 1918 a 'league of nations to ensure peace and justice.' British foreign secretary, argued that, as a condition of durable peace, 'behind international law, and behind all treaty arrangements for preventing or limiting hostilities, some form of international sanction should be devised which would give pause to the hardiest aggressor.' The war had had a profound impact, affecting the social, political and economic systems of Europe and inflicting psychological and physical damage. Several empires collapsed: first the in February 1917, followed by the,. Anti-war sentiment rose across the world; the First World War was described as ', and its possible causes were vigorously investigated. The causes identified included arms races, alliances, militaristic nationalism, secret diplomacy, and the freedom of sovereign states to enter into war for their own benefit.

One proposed remedy was the creation of an international organisation whose aim was to prevent future war through disarmament, open diplomacy, international co-operation, restrictions on the right to wage war, and penalties that made war unattractive.In London Balfour commissioned the first official report into the matter in early 1918, under the initiative of Lord. The British committee was finally appointed in February 1918. It was led by (and became known as the Phillimore Committee), but also included,. The recommendations of the so-called included the establishment of a 'Conference of Allied States' that would arbitrate disputes and impose sanctions on offending states. The proposals were approved by the British government, and much of the commission's results were later incorporated into the. Helped to draft the.The French also drafted a much more far-reaching proposal in June 1918; they advocated annual meetings of a council to settle all disputes, as well as an 'international army' to enforce its decisions.The American President Woodrow Wilson instructed to draft a US plan which reflected Wilson's own idealistic views (first articulated in the of January 1918), as well as the work of the Phillimore Commission. The outcome of House's work and Wilson's own first draft proposed the termination of 'unethical' state behaviour, including forms of espionage and dishonesty.

Methods of compulsion against recalcitrant states would include severe measures, such as 'blockading and closing the frontiers of that power to commerce or intercourse with any part of the world and to use any force that may be necessary.' The two principal drafters and architects of the were the British politician Lord and the South African statesman. Smuts' proposals included the creation of a Council of the great powers as permanent members and a non-permanent selection of the minor states. He also proposed the creation of a system for captured colonies of the during the war. Cecil focused on the administrative side and proposed annual Council meetings and quadrennial meetings for the Assembly of all members. He also argued for a large and permanent secretariat to carry out the League's administrative duties.

Establishment. Geneva, the League's headquarters from 1936 until its dissolution in 1946The main constitutional organs of the League were the Assembly, the Council, and the Permanent Secretariat.

It also had two essential wings: the Permanent Court of International Justice and the. In addition, there were several auxiliary agencies and commissions. Each organ's budget was allocated by the Assembly (the League was supported financially by its member states).The relations between the Assembly and the Council and the competencies of each were for the most part not explicitly defined. Each body could deal with any matter within the sphere of competence of the League or affecting peace in the world. Particular questions or tasks might be referred to either.Unanimity was required for the decisions of both the Assembly and the Council, except in matters of procedure and some other specific cases such as the admission of new members. This requirement was a reflection of the League's belief in the sovereignty of its component nations; the League sought a solution by consent, not by dictation.

In case of a dispute, the consent of the parties to the dispute was not required for unanimity.The Permanent Secretariat, established at the seat of the League at Geneva, comprised a body of experts in various spheres under the direction of the. Its principal sections were Political, Financial and Economics, Transit, Minorities and Administration (administering the and ), Mandates, Disarmament, Health, Social (Opium and Traffic in Women and Children), Intellectual Cooperation and International Bureaux, Legal, and Information. The staff of the Secretariat was responsible for preparing the agenda for the Council and the Assembly and publishing reports of the meetings and other routine matters, effectively acting as the League's civil service.

In 1931 the staff numbered 707.The Assembly consisted of representatives of all members of the League, with each state allowed up to three representatives and one vote. It met in Geneva and, after its initial sessions in 1920, it convened once a year in September. The special functions of the Assembly included the admission of new members, the periodical election of non-permanent members to the Council, the election with the Council of the judges of the Permanent Court, and control of the budget. In practice, the Assembly was the general directing force of League activities.The League Council acted as a type of executive body directing the Assembly's business.

It began with four permanent members (, and ) and four non-permanent members that were elected by the Assembly for a three-year term. The first non-permanent members were, and.The composition of the Council was changed several times.

The number of non-permanent members was first increased to six on 22 September 1922 and to nine on 8 September 1926. Of Germany pushed for his country to join the League; joining in 1926, Germany became the fifth permanent member of the Council. Later, after Germany and Japan both left the League, the number of non-permanent seats was increased from nine to eleven, and the Soviet Union was made a permanent member giving the Council a total of fifteen members. The Council met, on average, five times a year and in extraordinary sessions when required. In total, 107 sessions were held between 1920 and 1939. Other bodies The League oversaw the Permanent Court of International Justice and several other agencies and commissions created to deal with pressing international problems.

These included the Disarmament Commission, the International Labour Organization (ILO), the Commission, the (precursor to ), the Permanent Central Opium Board, the Commission for Refugees, and the Slavery Commission. Three of these institutions were transferred to the United Nations after the Second World War: the International Labour Organization, the (as the ), and the (restructured as the ).The Permanent Court of International Justice was provided for by the Covenant, but not established by it. The Council and the Assembly established its constitution.

Its judges were elected by the Council and the Assembly, and its budget was provided by the latter. The Court was to hear and decide any international dispute which the parties concerned submitted to it. It might also give an advisory opinion on any dispute or question referred to it by the Council or the Assembly.

The Court was open to all the nations of the world under certain broad conditions. Child labour in a coal mine, United States, c. 1912The International Labour Organization was created in 1919 on the basis of Part XIII of the Treaty of Versailles. The ILO, although having the same members as the League and being subject to the budget control of the Assembly, was an autonomous organisation with its own Governing Body, its own General Conference and its own Secretariat.

Its constitution differed from that of the League: representation had been accorded not only to governments but also to representatives of employers' and workers' organisations. Was its first director. Child labour in in 1919The ILO successfully restricted the addition of lead to paint, and convinced several countries to adopt an and forty-eight-hour working week. It also campaigned to end child labour, increase the rights of women in the workplace, and make shipowners liable for accidents involving seamen. After the demise of the League, the ILO became an agency of the United Nations in 1946.The League's health organisation had three bodies: the Health Bureau, containing permanent officials of the League; the General Advisory Council or Conference, an executive section consisting of medical experts; and the Health Committee.

The Committee's purpose was to conduct inquiries, oversee the operation of the League's health work, and prepare work to be presented to the Council. This body focused on ending, and, the latter two by starting an international campaign to exterminate mosquitoes. The Health Organisation also worked successfully with the government of the Soviet Union to prevent epidemics, including organising a large education campaign.The League of Nations had devoted serious attention to the question of international intellectual co-operation since its creation. The First Assembly in December 1920 recommended that the Council take action aiming at the international organisation of intellectual work, which it did by adopting a report presented by the Fifth Committee of the Second Assembly and inviting a Committee on Intellectual Cooperation to meet in Geneva in August 1922. The French philosopher became the first chairman of the committee. A sampleLed by, the Commission for Refugees was established on 27 June 1921 to look after the interests of refugees, including overseeing their and, when necessary, resettlement. At the end of the First World War, there were two to three million ex-prisoners of war from various nations dispersed throughout Russia; within two years of the commission's foundation, it had helped 425,000 of them return home.

It established camps in in 1922 to aid the country with an ongoing refugee crisis, helping to prevent the spread of, and as well as feeding the refugees in the camps. It also established the as a means of identification for.The Committee for the Study of the Legal Status of Women sought to inquire into the status of women all over the world. It was formed in 1937, and later became part of the United Nations as the Commission on the Status of Women.The Covenant of the League said little about economics.

Nonetheless, in 1920 the Council of the League called for a financial conference. The First Assembly at Geneva provided for the appointment of an Economic and Financial Advisory Committee to provide information to the conference. In 1923, a permanent economic and financial Organization came into being.

A map of the world in 1920–45, which shows the League of Nations members during its historyOf the League's 42 founding members, 23 (24 counting ) remained members until it was dissolved in 1946. In the founding year, six other states joined, only two of which remained members throughout the League's existence. Under the, (in fact the Deutsches Reich or German Empire) was admitted to the League of Nations through a resolution passed on 8 September 1926.An additional 15 countries joined later.

The largest number of member states was 58, between 28 September 1934 (when joined) and 23 February 1935 (when withdrew).On 26 May 1937, became the last state to join the League. The first member to withdraw permanently from the League was on 22 January 1925; having joined on 16 December 1920, this also makes it the member to have most quickly withdrawn. Was the first founding member to withdraw (14 June 1926), and the last (April 1942)., which joined in 1932, was the first member that had previously been a.The Soviet Union became a member on 18 September 1934, and was expelled on 14 December 1939 for. In expelling the Soviet Union, the League broke its own rule: only 7 of 15 members of the Council voted for expulsion (United Kingdom, France, Belgium, Bolivia, Egypt, and the ), short of the majority required by the Covenant.

Three of these members had been made Council members the day before the vote (South Africa, Bolivia, and Egypt). This was one of the League's final acts before it practically ceased functioning due to the Second World War. Mandates. Main article:At the end of the First World War, the were confronted with the question of the disposal of the former German colonies in Africa and the Pacific, and the several Arabic-speaking provinces of the. The adopted the principle that these territories should be administered by different governments on behalf of the League – a system of national responsibility subject to international supervision.

This plan, defined as the, was adopted by the 'Council of Ten' (the heads of government and foreign ministers of the main Allied powers: Britain, France, the United States, Italy, and Japan) on 30 January 1919 and transmitted to the League of Nations.League of Nations mandates were established under Article 22 of the Covenant of the League of Nations. The Permanent Mandates Commission supervised League of Nations mandates, and also organised in disputed territories so that residents could decide which country they would join.

There were three mandate classifications: A, B and C.The A mandates (applied to parts of the old Ottoman Empire) were 'certain communities' that had.reached a stage of development where their existence as independent nations can be provisionally recognised subject to the rendering of administrative advice and assistance by a Mandatory until such time as they are able to stand alone. The wishes of these communities must be a principal consideration in the selection of the Mandatory.

— Article 22, The Covenant of the League of NationsThe B mandates were applied to the former that the League took responsibility for after the First World War. — Article 22, The Covenant of the League of NationsSouth West Africa and certain South Pacific Islands were administered by League members under C mandates. These were classified as 'territories'.which, owing to the sparseness of their population, or their small size, or their remoteness from the centres of civilisation, or their geographical contiguity to the territory of the Mandatory, and other circumstances, can be best administered under the laws of the Mandatory as integral portions of its territory, subject to the safeguards above mentioned in the interests of the indigenous population.' Main article:The port city of (now ) and, with a predominantly German population, was under provisional Entente control according to Article 99 of the Treaty of Versailles. The French and Polish governments favoured turning Memel into an, while wanted to annex the area.

By 1923, the fate of the area had still not been decided, prompting Lithuanian forces to invade in January 1923 and seize the port. After the Allies failed to reach an agreement with Lithuania, they referred the matter to the League of Nations. In December 1923, the League Council appointed a Commission of Inquiry. The commission chose to cede Memel to Lithuania and give the area autonomous rights. The was approved by the League Council on 14 March 1924, and then by the Allied powers and Lithuania.

In 1939 Germany retook the region following the rise of the and an, demanding the return of the region under threat of war. The League of Nations failed to prevent the secession of the Memel region to Germany.Hatay. Main article:The League resolved a dispute between the Kingdom of Iraq and the Republic of Turkey over control of the former Ottoman province of in 1926. According to the British, who had been awarded a League of Nations in 1920 and therefore represented Iraq in its foreign affairs, Mosul belonged to Iraq; on the other hand, the new Turkish republic claimed the province as part of its historic heartland. A League of Nations Commission of Inquiry, with Belgian, Hungarian and Swedish members, was sent to the region in 1924; it found that the people of Mosul did not want to be part of either Turkey or Iraq, but if they had to choose, they would pick Iraq. In 1925, the commission recommended that the region stay part of Iraq, under the condition that the British hold the mandate over Iraq for another 25 years, to ensure the autonomous rights of the population.

The League Council adopted the recommendation and decided on 16 December 1925 to award Mosul to Iraq. Although Turkey had accepted the League of Nations' arbitration in the, it rejected the decision, questioning the Council's authority. The matter was referred to the Permanent Court of International Justice, which ruled that, when the Council made a unanimous decision, it must be accepted.

Nonetheless, Britain, Iraq and Turkey ratified a separate treaty on 5 June 1926 that mostly followed the decision of the League Council and also assigned Mosul to Iraq. It was agreed that Iraq could still apply for League membership within 25 years and that the mandate would end upon its admission. Main articles: andThere were several border conflicts between and in the early part of the 20th century, and in 1922, their governments signed the in an attempt to resolve them. As part of this treaty, the border town of and its surrounding area was ceded from Peru to Colombia, giving Colombia access to the. On 1 September 1932, business leaders from Peruvian rubber and sugar industries who had lost land, as a result, organised an armed takeover of Leticia.

At first, the did not recognise the military takeover, but decided to resist a Colombian re-occupation. The occupied Leticia, leading to an armed conflict between the two nations. After months of diplomatic negotiations, the governments accepted mediation by the League of Nations, and their representatives presented their cases before the Council. A provisional peace agreement, signed by both parties in May 1933, provided for the League to assume control of the disputed territory while bilateral negotiations proceeded. In May 1934, a final peace agreement was signed, resulting in the return of Leticia to Colombia, a formal apology from Peru for the 1932 invasion, demilitarisation of the area around Leticia, free navigation on the Amazon and, and a pledge of. Saar was a province formed from parts of Prussia and the and placed under League control by the Treaty of Versailles. A plebiscite was to be held after fifteen years of League rule to determine whether the province should belong to Germany or France.

When the referendum was held in 1935, 90.3 per cent of voters supported becoming part of Germany, which was quickly approved by the League Council. Other conflicts In addition to territorial disputes, the League also tried to intervene in other conflicts between and within nations. Among its successes were its fight against the international trade in opium and sexual slavery, and its work to alleviate the plight of refugees, particularly in Turkey in the period up to 1926. One of its innovations in this latter area was the 1922 introduction of the, which was the first internationally recognised identity card for stateless refugees. Greece and Bulgaria. Main article:After an incident involving sentries on the Greek-Bulgarian border in October 1925, fighting began between the two countries. Three days after the initial incident, Greek troops invaded Bulgaria.

The Bulgarian government ordered its troops to make only token resistance, and evacuated between ten thousand and fifteen thousand people from the border region, trusting the League to settle the dispute. The League condemned the Greek invasion, and called for both Greek withdrawal and compensation to Bulgaria.

Liberia Following accusations of forced labour on the large American-owned rubber plantation and American accusations of slave trading, the Liberian government asked the League to launch an investigation. The resulting commission was jointly appointed by the League, the United States, and Liberia. In 1930, a League report confirmed the presence of slavery and forced labour. The report implicated many government officials in the selling of contract labour and recommended that they be replaced by Europeans or Americans, which generated anger within Liberia and led to the resignation of President and his vice-president. The Liberian government outlawed forced labour and slavery and asked for American help in social reforms.

Mukden Incident: Japan attacks China. Chinese delegate addresses the League of Nations concerning the in 1932.The Mukden Incident, also known as the 'Manchurian Incident' was a decisive setback that weakened The League because its major members refused to tackle Japanese aggression. Japan itself withdrew.Under the agreed terms of the with China, the Japanese government had the right to station its troops in the area around the, a major trade route between the two countries, in the Chinese region of. In September 1931, a section of the railway was lightly damaged by the Japanese as a pretext for an invasion of Manchuria.

The Japanese army claimed that Chinese soldiers had sabotaged the railway and in apparent retaliation (acting contrary to orders from Tokyo, ) occupied all of Manchuria. They renamed the area, and on 9 March 1932 set up a puppet government, with, the former emperor of China, as its executive head. This new entity was recognised only by the governments of Italy, Spain and Nazi Germany; the rest of the world still considered Manchuria legally part of China.The League of Nations sent observers. The appeared a year later (October 1932). It declared Japan to be the aggressor and demanded Manchuria be returned to China. The report passed 42–1 in the Assembly in 1933 (only Japan voting against), but instead of removing its troops from China, Japan withdrew from the League. In the end, as British historian argued, collective security was dead:The League and the ideas of collective security and the rule of law were defeated; partly because of indifference and of sympathy with the aggressor, but partly because the League powers were unprepared, preoccupied with other matters, and too slow to perceive the scale of Japanese ambitions.

Chaco War. Emperor escaping Ethiopia via JerusalemIn October 1935, Italian dictator Benito Mussolini sent 400,000 troops to invade Abyssinia. Marshal led the campaign from November 1935, ordering bombing, the use of chemical weapons such as, and the poisoning of water supplies, against targets which included undefended villages and medical facilities. The modern defeated the poorly armed Abyssinians and captured in May 1936, forcing Emperor of Ethiopia to flee.The League of Nations condemned Italy's aggression and imposed economic sanctions in November 1935, but the sanctions were largely ineffective since they did not ban the sale of oil or close the (controlled by Britain).

As, the British Prime Minister, later observed, this was ultimately because no one had the military forces on hand to withstand an Italian attack. In October 1935, the US President, invoked the recently passed and placed an embargo on arms and munitions to both sides, but extended a further 'moral embargo' to the belligerent Italians, including other trade items. On 5 October and later on 29 February 1936, the United States endeavoured, with limited success, to limit its exports of oil and other materials to normal peacetime levels. The League sanctions were lifted on 4 July 1936, but by that point, Italy had already gained control of the urban areas of Abyssinia.The of December 1935 was an attempt by the British Foreign Secretary and the French Prime Minister to end the conflict in Abyssinia by proposing to partition the country into an Italian sector and an Abyssinian sector.

Mussolini was prepared to agree to the pact, but news of the deal leaked out. Both the British and French public vehemently protested against it, describing it as a sell-out of Abyssinia. Hoare and Laval were forced to resign, and the British and French governments dissociated themselves from the two men.

In June 1936, although there was no precedent for a head of state addressing the Assembly of the League of Nations in person, Haile Selassie spoke to the Assembly, appealing for its help in protecting his country.The Abyssinian crisis showed how the League could be influenced by the self-interest of its members; one of the reasons why the sanctions were not very harsh was that both Britain and France feared the prospect of driving Mussolini and into an alliance. Spanish Civil War. Main article:Following a long record of instigating localised conflicts throughout the 1930s, Japan began a full-scale invasion of China on 7 July 1937. On 12 September, the Chinese representative, appealed to the League for international intervention. Western countries were sympathetic to the Chinese in their struggle, particularly in their stubborn, a city with a substantial number of foreigners.

The League was unable to provide any practical measures; on 4 October, it turned the case over to the. Soviet invasion of Finland. Further information:Article 8 of the Covenant gave the League the task of reducing 'armaments to the lowest point consistent with national safety and the enforcement by common action of international obligations'. A significant amount of the League's time and energy was devoted to this goal, even though many member governments were uncertain that such extensive disarmament could be achieved or was even desirable. The Allied powers were also under obligation by the Treaty of Versailles to attempt to disarm, and the armament restrictions imposed on the defeated countries had been described as the first step toward worldwide disarmament.

The League Covenant assigned the League the task of creating a disarmament plan for each state, but the Council devolved this responsibility to a special commission set up in 1926 to prepare for the 1932–1934. Members of the League held different views towards the issue.

The French were reluctant to reduce their armaments without a guarantee of military help if they were attacked; Poland and felt vulnerable to attack from the west and wanted the League's response to aggression against its members to be strengthened before they disarmed. Without this guarantee, they would not reduce armaments because they felt the risk of attack from Germany was too great. Fear of attack increased as Germany regained its strength after the First World War, especially after Adolf Hitler gained power and became. In particular, Germany's attempts to overturn the Treaty of Versailles and the reconstruction of the German military made France increasingly unwilling to disarm.The was convened by the League of Nations in Geneva in 1932, with representatives from 60 states. It was a failure. A one-year moratorium on the expansion of armaments, later extended by a few months, was proposed at the start of the conference. The Disarmament Commission obtained initial agreement from France, Italy, Spain, Japan, and Britain to limit the size of their navies but no final agreement was reached.

Ultimately, the Commission failed to halt the military build-up by Germany, Italy, Spain and Japan during the 1930s.The League was mostly silent in the face of major events leading to the Second World War, such as Hitler's, occupation of the and of, which had been forbidden by the Treaty of Versailles. In fact, League members themselves re-armed. In 1933, Japan simply withdrew from the League rather than submit to its judgement, as did Germany the same year (using the failure of the World Disarmament Conference to agree to arms parity between France and Germany as a pretext), Italy and Spain in 1937. The final significant act of the League was to expel the Soviet Union in December 1939 after. General weaknesses.

The Gap in the Bridge; the sign reads 'This League of Nations Bridge was designed by the President of the U.S.A.' Cartoon from magazine, 10 December 1920, satirising the gap left by the US not joining the League.The onset of the Second World War demonstrated that the League had failed in its primary purpose, the prevention of another world war. There were a variety of reasons for this failure, many connected to general weaknesses within the organisation. Additionally, the power of the League was limited by the United States' refusal to join. Origins and structure The origins of the League as an organisation created by the Allied powers as part of the peace settlement to end the First World War led to it being viewed as a 'League of Victors'. The League's neutrality tended to manifest itself as indecision.

It required a unanimous vote of nine, later fifteen, Council members to enact a resolution; hence, conclusive and effective action was difficult, if not impossible. It was also slow in coming to its decisions, as certain ones required the unanimous consent of the entire Assembly. This problem mainly stemmed from the fact that the primary members of the League of Nations were not willing to accept the possibility of their fate being decided by other countries, and by enforcing unanimous voting had effectively given themselves veto power. Global representation Representation at the League was often a problem. Though it was intended to encompass all nations, many never joined, or their period of membership was short.

The most conspicuous absentee was the United States. President Woodrow Wilson had been a driving force behind the League's formation and strongly influenced the form it took, but the US Senate voted not to join on 19 November 1919.

Has suggested that, had the United States become a member, it would have also provided support to France and Britain, possibly making France feel more secure, and so encouraging France and Britain to co-operate more fully regarding Germany, thus making the rise to power of the less likely. Conversely, Henig acknowledges that if the US had been a member, its reluctance to engage in war with European states or to enact economic sanctions might have hampered the ability of the League to deal with. The structure of the might also have made its membership problematic, as its representatives at the League could not have made decisions on behalf of the without having the prior approval of the.In January 1920, when the League was born, Germany was not permitted to join because it was seen as having been the aggressor in the First World War.

Was also initially excluded because Communist regimes were not welcomed and membership would have been initially dubious due to the in which both sides claimed to be the legitimate government of the country. The League was further weakened when major powers left in the 1930s. Japan began as a permanent member of the Council since the country was an Allied Power in the First World War, but withdrew in 1933 after the League voiced opposition to its occupation of Manchuria. Italy began as a permanent member of the Council but withdrew in 1937 after roughly a year following the end of the.

Spain also began as a permanent member of the Council, but withdrew in 1939 after the ended in a victory for the Nationalists. The League had accepted Germany, also as a permanent member of the Council, in 1926, deeming it a 'peace-loving country', but Adolf Hitler pulled Germany out when he came to power in 1933. Collective security Another important weakness grew from the contradiction between the idea of that formed the basis of the League and between individual states. The League's collective security system required nations to act, if necessary, against states they considered friendly, and in a way that might endanger their, to support states for which they had no normal affinity. League of Nations archives, Geneva.As the situation in Europe escalated into war, the Assembly transferred enough power to the Secretary General on 30 September 1938 and 14 December 1939 to allow the League to continue to exist legally and carry on reduced operations.

The headquarters of the League, the, remained unoccupied for nearly six years until the Second World War ended.At the 1943, the Allied powers agreed to create a new body to replace the League: the United Nations. Many League bodies, such as the International Labour Organization, continued to function and eventually became affiliated with the UN.

The designers of the structures of the United Nations intended to make it more effective than the League.The final meeting of the League of Nations took place on 18 April 1946 in Geneva. Delegates from 34 nations attended the assembly. Brierly, J. 'The League of Nations' The New Cambridge Modern History, Vol. XII, The Shifting Balance of World Forces (2nd ed. 1968) Chapter IX,. Henig, Ruth B, ed.

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